有鑒於資訊科技日新月異，許多國家已經將程式教育落實在小學課程，而台灣也在一零八課綱中納入程式教育課程，以培養學生的邏輯與系統思考能力。許多研究指出程式設計被視為培養運算思維與批判性思考能力的重要途徑，反之，運算思維與批判性思考能力的提升，亦有助於程式設計能力的發展，但是並沒有明確的實證研究支持這樣的論述。有鑑於此，本研究旨在將運算思維與批判性思考原則發展成教學策略，讓學生在編寫程式的過程中理解其意涵，掌握有效的學習方法，並且內化成一種思維習慣，未來無論面對哪一種學科、哪一類問題，皆能夠獨立解決問題並完成目標。
本研究使用準實驗法，將三個國小五年級的班級隨機指派為演練式策略組、引導式策略組與提問式策略組，人數分別為28、29與27人。演練式策略為傳統講述法和教師演練示範之教學策略；引導式策略則基於運算思維之原則，以範例程式引導學生動手拆解運算思維的四項核心原則；而提問式策略則以運算思維四項核心原則，運用批判性思考六個方法設計提問問，讓學生自己思考問題的答案。實驗為期八週。研究結果顯示在程式設計學習成效、運算思維能力方面，引導式策略組與提問式策略組無顯著差異，但皆顯著優於演練式策略組；在程式設計學習動機方面，三組無顯著差異；在批判性思考能力方面，三組皆能有效的提升批判性思考能力，但是提問式策略組顯著優於引導式策略組和演練式策略組；在學習保留方面，引導式策略組與提問式策略組無顯著差異，但皆顯著優於演練式策略組。本研究結果證實，程式設計能力的提升確實有助於批判性思考能力的發展，但是唯有將運算思維策略融入到程式設計教學，才能有效提升學生的運算思維能力；同時，運算思維與批判性思考策略確實有助於提升國小學童的程式設計能力。

In the recent years, several studies indicate that programming have a positive impact on the development of students’ computational thinking skills and critical thinking skills. However, no studies have shown that the improvement of computational thinking and critical thinking skills could promote the development of programming skills. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of computational thinking and critical thinking strategy on elementary students’ programming learning achievement.
This study adopted a quasi-experimental design and the experiment was conducted for eight weeks. The participants were fifth-grade students where they were divided into three groups: Practicing strategy group, guiding strategy group, and problem posing strategy group. The practicing strategy group was designed using a teaching method where the teacher gave instructions to the students who passively listened to the programming lessons. The guiding strategy group was designed to guide students’ thinking and help them understand the computational thinking rules. The problem posing strategy group was based on the guiding strategy group, with additional critical thinking questions to help students to think deeper in regards of the programming lessons.
According to research results, it was found that the guiding strategy and problem posing strategy had significantly improved students programming learning performance and computational thinking skills. All the strategies of the programming lessons significantly improved students’ critical thinking skills. Additionally, the problem posing strategy group's students had better critical thinking skills. Yet, the three strategies did not have significant effect on improving the learning motivation. This study demonstrated methods for instructors to integrate computational thinking and critical thinking skills into programming learning activities by making programming learning a rich and interesting learning experience.

論文審定書 i
論文提要 ii
致謝 iii
摘要 iv
Abstract v
目錄 vii
圖目錄 ix
表目錄 x
第一章、緒論 1
第一節、研究背景與動機 1
第二節、研究目的 4
第三節、研究問題 5
第二章、文獻探討 6
第一節、程式設計教育與運算思維 6
第二節、批判性思考於教學之應用 9
第三節、學習動機的探討 12
第三章、系統設計 15
第一節、教學內容設計 15
第二節、演練式教學方法 19
第三節、引導式教學系統 20
第四節、提問式教學系統 26
第四章、研究方法 31
第一節、研究架構 31
第二節、研究工具 31
第三節、實驗設計 33
第五章、研究結果與討論 40
第一節、程式設計學習成效 40
第二節、運算思維能力分析 47
第三節、批判性思考能力分析 51
第四節、學習動機分析 54
第五節、程式設計學習保留分析 57
第六節、綜合討論 59
第六章、結論與建議 65
第一節、研究發現 65
第二節、研究貢獻 67
第三節、研究限制 69
第四節、未來研究 70
參考文獻 71
附錄一、課堂學習單-基礎任務 81
附錄二、課堂學習單-進階任務 82
附錄三、學習動機量表-學習活動前 83
附錄四、學習動機量表-學習活動後 84
附錄五、運算思維能力測驗卷內容 85
附錄六、批判性思考能力測驗卷內容 86

中文部分
王令宜(2017)。美國推動電腦科學（Computer Science）教育對我國之啟示。國家教育研究院教育脈動電子期刊，第10期，頁1-6。
國家教育研究院(2018)。十二年國民基本教育課程綱要。
張春興（2000）。教育心理學：三化取向的理論與實踐。臺北市：臺灣東華書局。
葉玉珠（2003）。批判思考測驗─第一級。臺北市：心理。

西文部分
Abdul-Rahman, S. S., & Du Boulay, B. (2014). Learning programming via worked-examples: Relation of learning styles to cognitive load. Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 286-298. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2013.09.007
Aloqaili, A. S. (2012). The relationship between reading comprehension and critical thinking: A theoretical study. Journal of King Saud University-Languages and Translation, 24(1), 35-41. doi: 10.1016/j.jksult.2011.01.001
Anderson, N. D. (2016). A call for computational thinking in undergraduate psychology. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 15(3), 226-234. doi: 10.1177/1475725716659252
Atmatzidou, S., & Demetriadis, S. (2016). Advancing students' computational thinking skills through educational robotics: A study on age and gender relevant differences. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 75, 661-670. doi: 10.1016/j.robot.2015.10.008
Barr, V., & Guzdial, M. (2015). Advice on teaching CS, and the learnability of programming languages. Communications of the ACM, 58(3), 8-9. doi: 10.1145/2716345
Bosse, Y., & Gerosa, M. A. (2017). Why is programming so difficult to learn? Patterns of Difficulties Related to Programming Learning Mid-Stage. ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes, 41(6), 1-6. doi:10.1145/3011286.3011301
Buitrago Flórez, F., Casallas, R., Hernández, M., Reyes, A., Restrepo, S., & Danies, G. (2017). Changing a generation’s way of thinking: Teaching computational thinking through programming. Review of Educational Research, 87(4), 834-860. doi: 10.3102/0034654317710096
Çakiroğlu, Ünal, Suiçmez, S. S., Kurtoğlu, Y., Sari, A., Yildiz, S., & Öztürk, M. (2018). Exploring perceived cognitive load in learning programming via Scratch. Research in Learning Technology, 26. doi: 10.25304/rlt.v26.1888
Chao, P. Y. (2016). Exploring students’ computational practice, design and performance of problem-solving through a visual programming environment. Computers & Education, 95, 202-215. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2016.01.010
D’Alessio, F. A., Avolio, B. E., & Charles, V. (2019). Studying the impact of critical thinking on the academic performance of executive MBA students. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 31, 275-283. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2019.02.002
Dale, E. (1954). Audio-visual methods in teaching (revised edition), A Holt-Dryden Book. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
Doleck, T., Bazelais, P., Lemay, D. J., Saxena, A., & Basnet, R. B. (2017). Algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, creativity, critical thinking, and problem solving: exploring the relationship between computational thinking skills and academic performance. Journal of Computers in Education, 4(4), 355-369. doi: 10.1007/s40692-017-0090-9
Durak, H. Y., & Saritepeci, M. (2018). Analysis of the relation between computational thinking skills and various variables with the structural equation model. Computers & Education, 116, 191-202. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2017.09.004
Ennis, R. H. (1962). A concept of critical thinking. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review, 32(1), 83-111.
Ennis, R. H., Millman, J., & Tomko, T. N. (1985). Cornell critical thinking tests level X & level Z: Manual. Pacific Grove, CA: Midwest Publications.
Erol, O., & Kurt, A. A. (2017). The effects of teaching programming with scratch on pre-service information technology teachers' motivation and achievement. Computers in Human Behavior, 77, 11-18. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.017
Faber, H. H., Wierdsma, M. D., Doornbos, R. P., van der Ven, J. S., & de Vette, K. (2017). Teaching computational thinking to primary school students via unplugged programming lessons. Journal of the European Teacher Education Network, 12, 13-24.
Facione, Peter (1990). Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction (The Delphi Report). Educational Resources Information Center (Eric) Document Reproduction Service No. Ed., pp. 315–423.
Gadanidis, G., Hughes, J. M., Minniti, L., & White, B. J. G. (2016). Computational thinking, grade 1 students and the binomial theorem. Digital Experiences in Mathematics Education, 3(2), 77-96. doi: 10.1007/s40751-016-0019-3
Ghanizadeh, A. (2016). The interplay between reflective thinking, critical thinking, self-monitoring, and academic achievement in higher education. Higher Education, 74(1), 101-114. doi: 10.1007/s10734-016-0031-y
Grover, S., & Pea, R. (2013). Computational thinking in K–12: A review of the state of the field. Educational Researcher, 42(1), 38-43. doi: 10.3102/0013189X12463051
Halpern, D. F. (1998). Teaching critical thinking for transfer across domains: Disposition, skills, structure training, and metacognitive monitoring. American Psychologist, 53(4), 449. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.53.4.449
Halpern, D. F. (2013). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking. Psychology Press. doi: 10.4324/9781315885278
Han, K. W., Lee, E., & Lee, Y. (2010). The impact of a peer-learning agent based on pair programming in a programming course. IEEE Transactions on Education, 53(2), 318-327. doi:10.1109/te.2009.2019121
Hand, B., Shelley, M. C., Laugerman, M., Fostvedt, L., & Therrien, W. (2018). Improving critical thinking growth for disadvantaged groups within elementary school science: A randomized controlled trial using the Science Writing Heuristic approach. Science Education, 102(4), 693–710. doi:10.1002/sce.21341
Helsdingen, A., Van Gog, T., & Van Merriënboer, J. (2011). The effects of practice schedule and critical thinking prompts on learning and transfer of a complex judgment task. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(2), 383-398. doi: 10.1037/a0022370
Hsu, T. C., Chang, S. C., & Hung, Y. T. (2018). How to learn and how to teach computational thinking: Suggestions based on a review of the literature. Computers & Education, 126, 296-310. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2018.07.004
Kafai, Y. B. (2016). From computational thinking to computational participation in K-12 education. Communications of the ACM, 59(8), 26-27. doi: 10.1145/2955114
Kalelioğlu, F., & Gülbahar, Y. (2014). The effects of teaching programming via scratch on problem solving skills: A discussion from learners' perspective. Informatics in Education, 13(1), 33-50.
Kalogiannakis, M., & Papadakis, S. (2018). Evaluating a Course for Teaching Advanced Programming Concepts with Scratch to Preservice Kindergarten Teachers: A Case Study in Greece. In Early Childhood Education. IntechOpen. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.81714
Kanemune, S., Shirai, S., & Tani, S. (2017). Informatics and programming education at primary and secondary schools in Japan. Olympiads in Informatics, 11, 143-150. doi: 10.15388/ioi.2017.11
Karampa, V., & Paraskeva, F. (2018). A Motivational Design of a Flipped Classroom on Collaborative Programming and STEAM. Learning Technology for Education Challenges, 870, 226–238. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95522-3_19
Kay, K., & Greenhill, V. (2011). Twenty-First Century Students Need 21st Century Skills. Bringing Schools into the 21st Century, 13, 41–65. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0268-4_3
Keller, J. M. (1984). The use of the ARCS model of motivation in teacher training. Aspects of educational technology, 17, 140-145.
Keller, J. M. (1987). IMMS: Instructional materials motivation survey. Florida State University.
Kong, S. C. (2019). Components and Methods of Evaluating Computational Thinking for Fostering Creative Problem-Solvers in Senior Primary School Education. In: Kong SC., Abelson H. (Eds.), Computational Thinking Education (pp. 119-141). Springer, Singapore. doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-6528-7_8
Kong, S. C., Chiu, M. M., & Lai, M. (2018). A study of primary school students' interest, collaboration attitude, and programming empowerment in computational thinking education. Computers & Education, 127, 178-189. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2018.08.026
Korkmaz, Ö., Çakir, R., & Özden, M. Y. (2017). A validity and reliability study of the Computational Thinking Scales (CTS). Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 558-569. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.005
Kuhn, D. (1999). A developmental model of critical thinking. Educational Researcher, 28(2), 16-46. doi: 10.3102/0013189X028002016
Lawanto, K., Close, K., Ames, C., & Brasiel, S. (2017). Exploring Strengths and Weaknesses in Middle School Students’ Computational Thinking in Scratch. In: Rich P., Hodges C. (Eds.), Emerging Research, Practice, and Policy on Computational Thinking. Educational Communications and Technology: Issues and Innovations (pp. 307-326). Springer, Cham doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-52691-1_19
Loorbach, N., Peters, O., Karreman, J., & Steehouder, M. (2015). Validation of the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) in a self‐directed instructional setting aimed at working with technology. British journal of educational technology, 46(1), 204-218. doi: 10.1111/bjet.12138
Lye, S. Y., & Koh, J. H. L. (2014). Review on teaching and learning of computational thinking through programming: What is next for K-12? Computers in Human Behavior, 41, 51-61. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.09.012
Lye, S. Y., & Koh, J. H. L. (2018). Case studies of elementary children’s engagement in computational thinking through Scratch programming. In M. S. Khine (Ed.), Computational thinking in STEM discipline: Foundations and research highlights. (pp. 227-251). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-93566-9_12
Malik, S. I., Mathew, R., & Hammood, M. M. (2019). PROBSOL: A web-based application to develop problem-solving skills in introductory programming. In: Al-Masri A., Curran K. (Eds.), Smart Technologies and Innovation for a Sustainable Future. Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development) (pp. 295-302). Springer, Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-01659-3_34
Marimuthu, M., & Govender, P. (2018). Perceptions of scratch programming among secondary school students in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. African Journal of Information and Communication, 21, 51-80. doi: 10.23962/10539/26112
Mehta, S. R., & Al-Mahrooqi, R. (2014). Can thinking be taught? Linking critical thinking and writing in an EFL context. RELC Journal, 46(1), 23-36. doi: 10.1177/0033688214555356
Menkes, J. (2005). Executive intelligence what all great leaders have. New York, NY: Perfect Bound.
Norris, S. P. (1985). Synthesis of research on critical thinking. Educational Leadership, 42(8), 40-45.
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2005). Critical thinking competency standards. Tomales, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Piaget, J. and Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books.
Pinto-Llorente, A. M., Casillas-Martín, S., Cabezas-González, M., & García-Peñalvo, F. J. (2018). Building, coding and programming 3D models via a visual programming environment. Quality & Quantity, 52(6), 2455-2468. doi: 10.1007/s11135-017-0509-4
Popat, S., & Starkey, L. (2019). Learning to code or coding to learn? A systematic review. Computers & Education, 128, 365-376. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2018.10.005
Psycharis, S., & Kallia, M. (2017). The effects of computer programming on high school students’ reasoning skills and mathematical self-efficacy and problem solving. Instructional Science, 45(5), 583-602. doi: 10.1007/s11251-017-9421-5
Sáez-López, J. M., Román-González, M., & Vázquez-Cano, E. (2016). Visual programming languages integrated across the curriculum in elementary school: A Two year case study using “Scratch” in five schools. Computers & Education, 97, 129- 141. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2016.03.003
Salomon, G., & Perkins, D. N. (1987). Transfer of cognitive skills from programming: When and how? Journal of Educational Computing Research, 3,149-170. doi: 10.2190/6F4Q-7861-QWA5-8PL1
Sarıtepeci, M., & Durak, H. (2017). Analyzing the effect of Block and Robotic Coding Activities on Computational Thinking in Programming Education. In, I. Koleva & G. Duman (Eds.), Educational Research and Practice, (Chapter 49, pp. 490-501). St. Kliment Ohridski University Press.
Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Sánchez Viveros, B. (2018). The cognitive benefits of learning computer programming: A meta-analysis of transfer effects. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(5), 764-792. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/edu0000314
Shim, J., Kwon, D., & Lee, W. (2016). The effects of a robot game environment on computer programming education for elementary school students. IEEE Transactions on Education, 60(2), 164-172. doi: 10.1109/TE.2016.2622227
Sweeney, D., & Harris, L. S. (2017). Student-Centered Coaching: The Moves. Thousand Oaks: Corwin.
Tran, Y. (2019). Computational Thinking Equity in Elementary Classrooms: What Third-Grade Students Know and Can Do. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 57(1), 3–31. doi: 10.1177/0735633117743918.
Tsai, C. Y. (2018). Improving students' understanding of basic programming concepts through visual programming language: The role of self-efficacy. Computers in Human Behavior, 95, 224-232. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.038
Tsui, L. (2002). Fostering critical thinking through effective pedagogy: Evidence from four institutional case studies. The Journal of Higher Education, 73(6), 740-763. doi: 10.1080/00221546.2002.11777179
Volet, S. E., & Lund, C. P. (1994). Metacognitive instruction in introductory computer programming: A better explanatory construct for performance than traditional factors. Journal of educational computing research, 10(4), 297-328. doi: 10.2190/9A08-Y2Q0-6AER-6KLQ
Voogt, J., Fisser, P., Good, J., Mishra, P., & Yadav, A. (2015). Computational thinking in compulsory education: Towards an agenda for research and practice. Education and Information Technologies, 20(4), 715-728. doi: 10.1007/s10639-015-9412-6
Voskoglou, M. G., Buckley, S. (2012). Problem Solving and Computers in a Learning Environment. Egyptian Computer Science Journal, 36(4), 28-46.
Wang, H. Y., Huang, I., & Hwang, G. J. (2016). Comparison of the effects of project-based computer programming activities between mathematics-gifted students and average students. Journal of Computers in Education, 3(1), 33-45. doi: 10.1007/s40692-015-0047-9
Wang, X. M., Hwang, G. J., Liang, Z. Y., & Wang, H. Y. (2017) Enhancing students' computer programming performances, critical thinking awareness and attitudes towards programming: An online peer- assessment attempt. Educational Technology & Society, 20(4), 58-68.
Widiansyah, A. T., Indriwati, S. E., Munzil, M., & Fauzi, A. (2018). I-invertebrata as an android-based learning media for molluscs, arthropods, and echinoderms identification and its influence on students' motivation. Jurnal Pendidikan Biologi Indonesia, 4(1), 43-52. doi: 10.22219/jpbi.v4i1.5476
Wilson, C. (2015). Hour of code---a record year for computer science. ACM Inroads, 6(1), 22-22.
Wing, J. M. (2006). Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, 49(3), 33-35. doi: 10.1145/1118178.1118215
Wing, J. M. (2008). Computational thinking and thinking about computing. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 366(1881), 3717-3725. doi: 10.1098/rsta.2008.0118
Wu, B., Hu, Y., Ruis, A. R., & Wang, M. (2019). Analysing computational thinking in collaborative programming: A quantitative ethnography approach. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 35(3), 421-434.
Yadav, A., Hong, H., & Stephenson, C. (2016). Computational thinking for all: pedagogical approaches to embedding 21st century problem solving in K-12 classrooms. TechTrends, 60(6), 565-568. doi: 10.1007/s11528-016-0087-7
Durak, H. Y., & Güyer, T. (2018). Design and Development of an Instructional Program for Teaching Programming Processes to Gifted Students Using Scratch. In J. Cannaday (Ed.), Curriculum Development for Gifted Education Programs (pp. 61-99). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-3041-1.ch004
Yukselturk, E., & Altiok, S. (2017). An investigation of the effects of programming with Scratch on the preservice IT teachers’ self‐efficacy perceptions and attitudes towards computer programming. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(3), 789-801. doi: 10.1111/bjet.12453