本篇論文之論旨主要有兩點：第一，透過重新檢視Smith博士的理論基礎—人性論，以重新理解其整體思想。在該論證中，我將呈現，傳統詮釋其學說所衍伸的‘Das Adam Smith Problem’是立基於錯誤地理解其人性論的基礎上。關於‘the problem’持續至今日的論爭乃是奠基於將其學說欲放置在透過以同情(sympathy)或自利(self-interest)為基礎以推論出其人性論一致觀點之爭議，但，正如我在本篇論文所持之問題意識所要論證的，無論是以同情或是自利為基礎皆未整全的理解Smith博士建構其人性論的整全視野。透過呈現Smith博士思想中關於道德判斷發展機制以及市場行為運作原則的呈現，我認為，Smith博士的人性論應著重在對人智性能力(intellectual capacity)的考察之上，尤以針對在日常生活中我們道德判斷之發展過程以及自我與他者間的相互理解為主，強調人培養其判斷力與反思能力的智性能力才是正確理解Smith博士人性論的基本方向。其次，本文第二個主要論證是，在Smith博士的道德哲學體系中，「合宜性」(propriety)與「德性」(virtue)之間的規範性關係亦是詮釋其學說重要的爭議，前者指的是對於社會大眾普遍可達到的規範性標準，後者則是指只有少數人可達到更嚴苛的規範性標準。而我的論證是，如果人類的智性能力，如判斷力或反思能力，才是理解其學說之基要概念，且Smith博士是透過此取代對人性單一概念理解方式之不足，則其所建構的公正旁觀者(impartial spectator)及旁觀者式(spectatorship)建構其道德哲學之途徑亦主要是給予道德行為者陶冶其道德判斷或反思能力以優先之地位。若此詮釋是正確的話，則Smith博士的主要關注是透過呈現道德判斷發展的一般性原則，而該原則最終歸結於公正旁觀者之判斷，透過對此原則之呈現，以建構出道德行為者認知其本身具備道德潛能(moral potential)之意涵，且在Smith博士的思想中，公正旁觀者的判斷亦是聯結合宜性與德性各自所持有不同規範性標準的重要聯結。最後，在結論的部分，我將結合其思想中關於道德潛能與人性論之間的聯繫，並嘗試證明，作為實踐道德哲學家的Smith博士認為，人所擁有的智性能力正是奠基在不斷透過反思與判斷的實踐與改進而享有其應有的特殊地位。

The crucial purposes of this thesis have two folds. Firstly, I will reconstruct Adam Smith’s (5 June 1723-17 July 1790) thought through re-conceptualising the doctrine of the human nature in his theory. In doing this, I will give you reasons that the so-called ‘Das Adam Smith Problem’ is founding on the wrong problematic concern in interpreting Smith’s doctrine. The bulk of ‘the problem’, having raised from the incessant controversy about whether Smith’s theory is a coherent system built upon either sympathetic-based or interested-based foundation, but, as my kernel problematic concern in this thesis, I will argue that, neither side alone captures comprehensively about Smith’s own understanding of human nature. Through presenting Smith’s conception of the development of our moral judgement and his construction of operational principal of our market bahaviour, his doctrine of man should be orientated towards our intellectual capacity, especially on how do human cultivate their own moral judgement and the proper way of mutual understanding in everyday life. To accentuate the development of our capacity of judgement or reflection is the way I argue to understand Smith’s conception of man correctly. Secondly, another controversy about Smith’s doctrine lies on the contradiction among the concepts of ‘propriety’ and ‘virtue’ in his moral philosophy, while the former is the general standard attainable by the majority, and the latter with the stricter normative standard only a few men can achieve. My argument is, if man’s intellectual capacity, such as judgement and reflection, having been regarded as essential concepts that Smith used to supersede the deficiency of one-sided understanding of human, then, his conception of impartial spectator and spectatorship’s approach also gives the priority to cultivate our moral judgement and our capacity of reflection. Smith’s primary concern, if I conceive it rightly, is to inspire our moral potential through disclosing the general principle lies behind our moral learning which terminated in the judgement made by impartial spectator, further, the concept of impartial spectator is also a linkage of different normative standards prescribed by propriety or virtue. Finally, In the conclusion part, I will connect my argument about moral potential with Smith’s conception of human nature which tries to prove that, as the practical moralist, who considered man as intellectual animals that who deserves this privileged claim when who urges himself in enlarging and improving his own mentality.

目　錄
論文審定書………………………………………………………………………i
中文摘要…………………………………………………………………………ii
英文摘要…………………………………………………………………………iii
第一章　導論………………………………………………………………………3
　第一節　前言……………………………………………………………………3
　第二節　重新建構Smith博士的人性論………………………………………6
　第三節　章節安排……………………………………………………………13
第二章　Smith博士論人性理論之初探…………………………………………18
　第一節　論人求知的情感及其在Smith博士理論中的應用..............20
　　第二節　如何理解Smith博士理論中最具爭議性的「自利」人性觀………46
第三章　論同情及公正的旁觀者.....................................62
　　第一節　論Smith博士理論中關於「同情」是什麼的問題............... 64
　　第二節　論同情是否為自私的情感.................................78
　　第三節　自我的內在對話：公正的旁觀者............................90
　第四節　公正旁觀者之屬性及自我的內在對話......................117
第四章　合宜性之內涵及其內在關係................................128
　　第一節　旁觀者與當事人的情感一致性與合宜性之基礎..............130
第二節　合宜性作為一般性原則之意涵............................143
　　第三節　合宜性與愛好品格的基礎................................161
第五章　菁英之德性論與平民化的道德觀............................185
　　第一節　社會化的道德發展......................................187
第二節　道德情操與商業社會中的道德問題........................210
第三節　合宜性亦或德性？關於Smith博士思想中道德主體的重構....232
第四節　結論..................................................247
　參考文獻........................................................252
　附錄一..........................................................261

一，學術專書：（次序按作者字母順序排列，Adam Smith之著作參見附錄一）
A. L. Macfie. 1967. The Individual in Society, 1 edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Alasdair MacIntyre. 1984. After Virtue, 2 editions. Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press.
Alexander Broadie (ed.) 2007. The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment, 3 editions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Allan Bloom (ed.) Jean-Jacques Rousseau. 1993(1762). Emile or On Education, 1 edition. New York: Basic Books Published.
Amartya Sen. 1989. On Ethics and Economics, 1 edition. London: Wiley-Blackwell Published.
A. S. Skinner. 1979. System of Social Science: Papers Relating to Adam Smith. 1 edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Andrew Stewart Skinner.1996. A System of Social Science: Papers Relating to Adam Smith, 1 edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Any Rand. 1964. The Virtue of Selfishness. 1 edition, New York: New American Library Published.
Athol Fitzgibbons. 1997. Adam Smith's System of Liberty, Wealth, and Virtue: The Moral and Political Foundations of The Wealth of Nations, 1edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Charles L. Griswold. 1999. Adam Smith and The Virtues of Enlightenment, 1 edition. Cambridge University Press.
Daniel Carey. 2009. Locke, Shaftesbury, and Hutcheson: Contesting Diversity in the Enlightenment and Beyond. 2 editions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
D. D. Raphael. 1985 Adam Smith, 1 edition. Oxford: Oxford University.
D. D. Raphael. 2007. The Impartial Spectator: Adam Smith’s Moral Philosophy, 1 edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dennis C. Raseussen. 2008. The Problems and Promise of Commercial Society: Adam Smith’s Response to Rousseau. 1 edition, Pennsylvaina: Pennsylvania University Press.
Donald Winch. 1978. Adam Smith’s Politics: An Essay in Historiograohic Revision, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Donald Winch. 1996. Riches and Poverty: An Intellectual History of Political Economy in Britain, 1750-1834, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Donald Winch. 2009. Wealth and Life: Essays on the Intellectual History of Political Economy in Britain, 1848-1914, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Duncan Kelly. 2011, The Propriety of Liberty: Persons, Passions and Judgement in Modern Political Thought, 1 edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Emma Rothschild. 2001. Economic Sentiments: Adam Smith, Condorcet and the Enlightenment, 1 edition. Harvard: Harvard University Press.
F. B. Kaye (ed.) Bernard Mandeville. 1924 (1723). The Fable of the Bees, New Edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press, vol.1 &2.
Fonna Forman-Barzilai. 2011. Adam Smith and the Circles of Sympathy: Cosmopolitanism and Moral Theory, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fonna Forman-Barzilai (ed.) 2011. The Adam Smith Review vol. 6, 1 edition. London: Routledge Published.
Gloria Vivenza. 2003. Adam Smith and the Classics: The Classical Heritage in Adam Smith’s Thought, 1 edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hans-Georg Gadamer. 1994. Truth and Method, 2 editions. London: Continuum International Published.
Henry C. Clark. 2003. Commerce, Culture, and Liberty: Readings on Capitalism before Adam Smith, 1 edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hiroshi Mizuta. 2002. Adam Smith’s Library: A Catalogue, 1 edition. Oxford: Oxford University.
Istvan Hont & Michael Ignatieff (eds.) 1986. Wealth and Virtue, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
James. R. Otteson. 2002. Adam Smith’s Marketplace of Life, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
James Rachels. 2009. The Elements of Moral Philosophy. 6 editions, New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education Published.
Jerry Evensky. 2005. Adam Smith's Moral Philosophy: A Historical and Contemporary Perspective on Markets, Law, Ethics, and Culture, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jerry Z. Muller. 1993. Adam Smith in His Time and Ours: Designing the Decent Society, 1 edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
John Rawls. 1999. A Theory of Justice, revised edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kund Haakonssen. 1989. The Science of a Legislator: The Natural Jurisprudence of David Hume and Adam Smith, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kund Haakonssen (ed.) 2006. The Cambridge Companion to Adam Smith, 1edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Laurence D. Copper. 1999. Rousseau, Nature, and the Problem of the Good Life, 1 edition. Pennsylvanoa: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Leonids Montes. 2004. Adam Smith in Context: A Critical Reassessment of Some Central Components of His Thought, 1 edition. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Leonidas Montes & Eric Schliesser (eds.) 2009. New Voices on Adam Smith, 2 editions. London: Routledge Published.
Leslie Paul Thiele. 1997. Thinking Politics: Perspectives in Ancient, Modern, and Postmodern Political Theory, 1 edition. New York: Chatham House Published.
Michael B Gill. 2010. The British Moralists on Human Nature and the Birth of Secular Ethics, 1 edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Michael L. Frazar. 2010. The Enlightenment of Sympathy: Justice and the Moral Sentiments in the Eighteenth century and Today, 1 edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Paul Harris. 1989. Children and Emotion: The Development of Psychological Understanding, 1 edition. Oxford: Blackwell Published.
Paul Turpin. 2011. The Moral Rhetoric of Political Economy: Justice and Modern Economic Thought, 1 edition. London: Routledge Published.
Peter Goldie. 2002. Understanding Emotions: Mind and Morals, 1 edition. London: Ashgate Published.
Pierre Force. 2007. Self-Interest before Adam Smith: A Genealogy of Economic Science, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Roger Crisp (ed.) Aristotle. 2000 (330BC). Nicomachean Ethics, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ryan Patrick Hanley. 2010. Adam Smith and the Character of Virtue, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Samuel Fleischacker. 1999. A Third Concept of Liberty: Judgment and Freedom in Kant and Adam Smith, 1 edition.Princeton: Princeton University.
Samuel Fleischacker. 2005. A Short History of Distributive Justice, 2 editions. Harvard: Harvard University Press.
Samuel Fleischacker. 2005. On Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, 1 edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Stefan Collini & Richard Whatmore (eds.) 2000. Economy, Polity, and Society: British Intellectual History 1750- 1950. 1 edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stephen Darwall, Allan Gibbard & Peter Railton (eds.) 1997. Moral Discourses and Practice: Some Philosophical Approaches, 1 edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stephen J. McKenna. 2006. Adam Smith: the Rhetoric of Propriety, 1 edition. New York: State University of New York Press.
Tatsuya Sakamoto & Hideo Tanaka (eds.) 2003. The Rise of Political Economy in the Scottish Enlightenment, 1edition. London: Routledge Published.
Thomas. D. Campbell. 1971. Adam Smith’s Science of Morals, 1 edition. London: Routledge Published.
Tribe K. & H. Mizuta 2002. A Critical Bibliography of Adam Smith, 1 edition. London: Pickering and Chatto.
V. M. Hope. 1989. Virtue by Consensus: The Moral Philosophy of Hutcheson, Hume, and Adam Smith, 1 edition. Oxford: Clarendon.
Victor Gourevitch (ed.) Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1997(1755). The Discourses and other early political writings, 1 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Vivienne Brown. 1994. Adam Smith’s Discourse: Canonicity, Commerce and Conscience, 1 edition. London: Routledge Published.
Vivienne Brown & Samuel Fleischacker (eds.) 2005. The Adam Smith Review vol. 1, 1 edition. London: Routledge Published.
Vivienne Brown & Samuel Fleischacker (eds.) 2006. The Adam Smith Review vol. 2, 1 edition. London: Routledge Published.
Vivienne Brown & Samuel Fleischacker (eds.) 2007. The Adam Smith Review vol. 3, 1 edition. London: Routledge Published.
Vivienne Brown & Samuel Fleischacker (eds.) 2010. The Adam Smith Review vol. 4, 1 edition. London: Routledge Published.
Vivienne Brown & Samuel Fleischacker (eds.) 2010. The Adam Smith Review vol. 5, 1 edition. London: Routledge Published.
W. Hopper (ed.) Claude Adrien Helvétius. 1969(1818). A Treatise on Man, new edition, new edition. New York: Burt Franklin, vol.1 & 2.
二，期刊論文文獻：
A. L. Macfie,“Adam Smith’s Moral Sentiments as Foundation of His Wealth of Nations,” Oxford Economic Papers 3(1959).
Alexander Broadie, “Aristotle, Adam Smith and the Virtue of Propriety,” The Journal of Scottish Philosophy 1(2009).
Andreas Kalyvas & Ira Katznelson, “The Rhetoric of the Market: Adam Smith on Recognition, Speech, and Exchange,” The Review of Politics 3(2001).
Arthur M. Melzer, “Rousseau and the Problem of Bourgeois Society,” The American Political Science Review 4(1980).
August Oncken,“The Consistency of Adam Smith,” The Economic Journal 7(1897).
David Fate Norton & J. C. Stewart-Roberston,“Thomas Reid on Adam Smith’s Theory of Morals,” Journal of the History of Ideas 3(1980).
David Fate Norton & J. C. Stewart-Roberston,“Thomas Reid on Adam Smith’s Theory of Morals,” Journal of the History of Ideas 2(1984).
David M. Levy & Sandra J. Peart, “Sympathy and Approbation in Hume and Smith: A Solution to the Other Rational Species Problem,” Economics and Philosophy 3(2004).
Deirdre McCloskey,“Adam Smith, the Last of the Former Virture Ethicists,” Elgar Companion to Adam Smith 1(2010).
Donald Winch, “Adam Smith: Scottish Moral Philosopher as Political Economy,” The Historical Journal 1(1992).
Donald Winch, “Adam Smith’s Problem and Ours,” Scottish Journal of Political Economy 4(1997).
Duglas J. Den Uyl & Charles L. Griswold Jr, “Adam Smith on Friendship and Love,” The Review of Metaphysics 3(1996).
Edward J. Harpham, “Liberalism, Civic Humanism, and the Case of Adam Smith,” American Political Science Review 4(1984).
E. L Khalil, “Beyond Self-Interest and Altruism: A Reconstruction of Adam Smith’s Theory of Human Conduct,” Economics and Philosophy 6(1990).
Elmer H. Duncan & Robert M. Barid, “Thomas Reid’s Criticisms of Adam Smith’s Theory of the Moral Sentiments,” Journal of the History of Ideas 3(1977).
Eugene Heath, “The Commerce of Sympathy: Adam Smith on the Emergence of Morals,” Journal of the History of Philosophy 3(1995).
F. Rosen, “The Idea of Utility in Adam Smith’s The Theory of Moral Sentiments,” History of European Ideas 1(2000).
Fonna Forman-Barzilai, “Adam Smith as Globalization Theorist,” Critical Review 4 (2000).
Fonna Forman-Barzilai, “Whose Justice? Which Impartiality? : Reflections on Griswold’s Smith,” Perspectives on Political Science 3(2001).
Fonna Forman-Barzilai, “Sympathy in Space(s): Adam Smith on Proximity,” Political Theory 2(2005).
Geoffrey Sayre-McCord,“Rational Agency and the Nature of Normative Concepts,” Mind & Language 4(2010).
H. M. Hopfl,“From Savage to Scotsman: Conjectural History in the Scottish Enlightenment,” The Journal of British Studies 2(1978).
Henry C. Clark, “Conversation and Moderate Virtue in Adam Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments,” The Review of Politics 2(1992).
Jacob Viner,“Adam Smith and Laissez Faire,” The Journal of Political Economy 2(1927).
James Konow, “Adam Smith and Moral Knowledge,” The Journal of Scottish Philosophy 2(2009).
Jerry Evensky,“Adam Smith’s Lost Legacy,” Southern Economic Journal 3(2001).
Jeffrey Lomonaco,“Adam Smith’s Letter to the Authors of the Edinburgh Review,” Journal of the History of Ideas 4(2002).
John Dwyer, “Ethics and Economics: Bridging Adam Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments and Wealth of Nations,” Journal of British Studies 4(2005).
John W. Danford, “Adam Smith, Equality, and the Wealth of Sympathy,” American Journal of Political Science 4(1980).
Karen Valihora,“The Judgement of Judgement: Adam Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments,” British Journal of Aesthetics 2(2001).
Laurence Dickey,“Historicizing the Adam Smith Problem: Conceptual, Historiographical, and Textual Issues,” The Journal of Modern History 3(1986).
Leonidas Montes, “Das Adam Smith Problem: Its Origins, the Stages of the Current Debate, and One Implication for Our Understanding of Sympathy,” Journal of the History of Economic Thought 1(2003).
Lisa Hill, “Adam Smith and the Theme of Corruption,” The Review of Politics 4(2006).
Maria Alejandra Carrasco,“Adam Smith’s Reconstruction of Practical Reason,” The Review of Metaphysics 2(2004).
Maria Alejandra Carrasco, “Adam Smith on Morality, Justice and the Political Constitution of Liberty,” The Journal of Scottish Philosophy 2(2008).
Maria Pia Paganelli,“The Adam Smith Problem in Reverse: Self-Interest in The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments,” History of political Economy 2(2008).
Maureen Harkin, “Adam Smith’s Missing History: Primitives, Progress, and Problems of Genre,” Essays in Honor of Ronald Paulson 2(2005).
Norbert Waszek, “Two Concepts of Morality: A Distinction of Adam Smith’s Ethics and its Stoic Origin,” Journal of the History of Ideas 4(1984).
Patrica H. Werhane,“The Role of Self-Interest in Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations,” The Journal of Philosophy 5(1989).
Peter Goldie,“How We Think Others’ Emotions,” Mind & Language 4(1999).
Peter Olsthoorn,“Honour, Face and Reputation in Political Theory,” European Journal of Political Theory 4(2008).
Philippe Fontaine, “Identification and Economic Behaviour: Sympathy and Empathy in Historical Perspective,” Economics and Philosophy 2(1997).
Pierre Force, “Self-Love, Identification, and the Origin of Political Economy,” Yale French Studies 1(1997).
Ralph Lerner, “Commerce and Character: The Anglo-American as New-Model Man,” The William and Mary Quarterly 1(1979).
Richard Teichgraeber III,“Rethinking Das Adam Smith Problem,” The Journal of British Studies 2(1981).
Ronald Harry Coase,“Adam Smith’s View of Man,” Journal of Law and Economics 4(1976).
Roderick Firth,“Ethical Absolutism and the Ideal Observer,” Philosophy and Phenomenplpgical Research 3(1952).
Rusell Nieli, “Spheres of Intimacy and the Adam Smith Problem,” Journal of the History of Ideas 4(1986).
Ryan Partick Hanley, “Commerce and Corruption: Rousseau’s Diagnosis and Adam Smith’s Cure,” European Journal of Political Theory 2(2008).
Samuel Fleischacker,“Adam Smith and the Virtues of Enlightenment by Charles Griswold,” Mind, New Series 4(2000).
Stephen Darwall,“Empathy, Sympathy, Care,” Philosophical Studies 2(1998).
Stephen Darwall,“Sympathetic Liberalism: Recent Work on Adam Smith,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 2(1999).
Veron L. Smith,“The Two Faces of Adam Smith,” Southern Economic Journal 1(1998).