本研究透過質性研究方法，從在台灣擁有小型企業的北美經營者的觀點探討關係的倫理因素。關係是一種中國商傳統的經商手法，同時也解釋了社會網路的發展。關係的觀念複雜，因人而異，對一位北美外派的業主來說，想要完全融會貫通，並不容易。與當地消費者或商業個體建立關係十分複雜耗時，關係解釋了社會上每一位成員如合擁有自己的角色，並依據不同特性扮演好屬於自己的角色。社交網路包含了社會上不同的利益關係者，從鄰居、警察、到家庭成員都屬之。其過程涉略了大量的送禮習俗、互相回報，甚至當關係連結為負面用途時則會造成不道德的賄賂與貪污。本篇研究特別著重於在台灣時常被忽略的相關議題。即便有許多差異上的證據，台灣的關係現象被視為與中國的關係運作方式相當。本研究總共針對在台灣的外派工作者進行了10個深度半結構式訪談，訪談的樣本包括台灣居住超過十年的工作者、成功經營企業超過五年的企業家，以及有高中文水平的語言使用者。訪談的問題探討了受訪者建立、了解關係系統在台灣的運作。在半結構式訪談中研究了為了讓外派工作者獲得成功，何種社交網路是關鍵的並如何建立此種關係。本研究也考慮到企業關係上的文化差異，探討在北美文化中會被視為不符合倫理，但在台灣的文化卻被視為符合倫理者，特別企業關係的建立、交易、談判等。本研究探討兩個不同文化在關係上的倫理觀點，研究結果包含管理實務上為了任何想要來台灣發展商業活動的北美個體與組織提供有利的見解。

This study qualitatively explores the ethical parameters of guanxi from the perspective of North Americans who own small businesses in Taiwan. Guanxi is the traditional method of doing business in China, and explains how social networks develop. It is complex, and personal, and very hard for an expatriate from North America to integrate into, when owning and running a business. Developing business relationships with individuals can be complex and time consuming. Guanxi explains how everyone has a role, and must behave in a certain way according to the context. Networks can include numerous stakeholders, including neighbors, police and family. The process involves a lot of gift-giving and mutual reciprocity, and can sometimes have negative connotations leading to bribery and/or corruption, and is sometimes viewed as unethical. This research specifically looks at Taiwan which often gets overlooked. It is sometimes assumed that Guanxi in Taiwan mirrors that in China, even though there is evidence of differences. Ten in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with expatriates in Taiwan. The sample includes individuals who have lived in Taiwan for up to ten years, successfully run a business for a minimum of five, and have a high-skill level of the Chinese language. Questions explored interviewees experiences of developing, and understanding, Guanxi networks in the Taiwanese system. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to study which networks were necessary and how to develop these relationships, in order for an expatriate to succeed in Taiwan. This study also considers the culturally different perspectives of business relationships, specifically, business relationship developments, transactions, or negotiations which may have been viewed as unethical in a North American context, but are perceived as morally just in a Taiwanese cultural context. This research will look at the ethical perspectives of two different cultures in relation to Guanxi relationships. The findings have practical implications, providing beneficial insights for any American individual or organization willing to do business in Taiwan.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Thesis Validation Letter
i
Abstract
ii
Table of Contents
iv
List of Tables
ix
CHAPTER 1
1
Introduction
1
CHAPTER 2
4
Literature Review
4
Definition of Guanxi
4
How Westerners Understand Guanxi
7
Other Western Theories
7
Social Identity Theory
7
Leader Member Exchange (LMX)
7
Role Theory
7
Social Exchange Theory
7
Comparisons of Guanxi and LMX Theory
9
Role of Emotions
10
Saving Face
10
Corruption
15
The Act of Gift Giving in Detail
11
Gift-Giving seen as Bribery
12
Reciprocity
13
Past Failures of Expatriates
14
Expatriate Adaptation
15
Moral Issues
16
Chinese Moral History
16
What is Chinese Morality
17
Gilligan’s Theory of Caring
18
Morality Conclusions - 2 Types of Guanxi
19
Chinese Management attempting Guanxi in the Western World
20
Size of the Organization or Business
23
Westerners who have lived a long time in China
24
Business Tips involving Americans in Taiwan
26
Extroversion for Guanxi Building
27
8 Suggestions to form Guanxi
28
How to form Guanxi as a foreigner (more specific)
29
Maintaining Guanxi in a Business
30
Criteria for Expatriates to Succeed
31
Gaps in the Research
32
CHAPTER 3
34
Methodology
34
Sampling
34
Ethicality
36
Reliability and Validity
37
CHAPTER 4
39
Demographic Data
39
Analysis
40
Thematic Analysis
40
Analytical Coding
41
Themes and Discussions
43
Two Main Themes, Guanxi, Morality
43
Interviewees
44
Guanxi Developing - Start - Up
45
Legality of Expatriate Starting up a Business
45
Role Theory Examples
46
Guanxi Development / Role Theory - Ethical Issues
47
Guanxi Building Start - Up Ex. 2 / Western Theory Comparisons
48
Guanxi Building Start - Up Ex. 3 / Failures, LMX Theory/ Ethicality
49
Guanxi Departments
51
Which Business Department is Most Important to establish Guanxi With?
51
Neighbors
51
Ethics - Neighbors
52
Bad Guanxi Neighbors
52
Neighbors/Ethics/ Police Department
53
Neighbors Good Guanxi
54
Police Dept. vs Neighbors
55
Good Guanxi is Impossible
57
Ethicality Police Department/EPA
58
Brief Conclusion P.D. and Neighbors
59
Guanxi with Other Departments
60
Guanxi Employees/ LMX Theory
60
Language / Guanxi with Employees
61
Customers
62
Ethicality
64
Suppliers
64
Theme 2 - Ethicality - P.o.V
65
Gift-Giving/ Reciprocity
66
Gift-Giving Expatriate Unawareness
66
Questions of Ethicality - Corruption
68
Guanxi - Organized Crime/Mafia
68
Advantages of being Foreign
69
Disadvantages of being Foreign
70
Right Guanxi - Government
71
CHAPTER 5
72
Overall Conclusions
72
Limitations
75
Practical Implications
77
References
78
Appendix
91
Coding
102

References

Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life (pp. 94–99). New York: Wiley.
Black, J., Gregorsen, H., Mendenhall, M. and Stroh, L. (1999) Globalizing People through International Assignments, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
Belcourt, M., Wright, P. and Saks, A. (2000), Managing Performance through Training and Development, ITP Nelson Canada, Scarborough, Ontario.
Blackman, C. (2000) China Business: The Rules of the Game, St Leonards, NSW: Allen and Unwin.
Buttery, E.A. and Wong, Y.H. (1999) ‘The development of a guanxi framework’, Marketing Intelligence and Planning 17(3): 147–154.
Brunner, J. A. Chen, J., Sun., C and Zhou, N. (1989 “The role of Guanxi in negotiations in the Pacific Basin”, Journal of Global Marketing, . 3 (2), p 7-23.)
Beltramini, Richard , (2000) “Exploring the Effectiveness of Business Gifts: Replication and Extension”, Journal of Advertising, Vol 29(2) p 7-23.
Brunner, J.A., Chen, J., Sun, C. and Zhou, N. (1989), ``The role of guanxi in negotiations in the Pacific Basin’’, Journal of Global Marketing, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 7-23.
Braun, V. and Clarke, V., (2006), “Using thematic analysis in psychology.” Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3:2, pp. 77-101
Björkman, I., & Schapp, A. (1994). Outsiders in the middle kingdom: Expatriate managers in
Chinese-Western joint ventures. European Management Journal, 12(2), 147-153.
Chen. Z.X. (1997) 'Loyalty to Supervisor, Organizational Commitment and Employee Outcomes: A Chinese Ca';c', unpublished doctoral thesis. The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. Hong Kong
Dunfee, T W. and D. E. Warren: 2001, 'Is Guanxi Ethical? A Normative Analysis of Doing Business in China', journal of Business Ethics 32, 191—201
D'Souza, Clare. An inference of gift-giving within Asian business culture Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics; 2003; 15, 1/2; ProQuest Central pg. 27
Cogliser, C. C., Schiriesheim, C. A., Scandura, T. A., & Gardner, W. L. (2009). Balance in leader and follower perceptions of leader– member exchange: Relationships with performance and work attitudes. Leadership Quarterly, 20, 452–465.
Dan Nie • Anna-Maija La¨msa(2015). The Leader–Member Exchange Theory in the Chinese Context and the Ethical Challenge of Guanxi Influences on expatriate social networks in China Ya-Ping Chiua , Melien Wub , Wen-Long Zhuang * and Ying-Yu Hsu. School of Business and Economics, University of Jyva¨skyla. Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Davies, H., Leung, T.K.P., Luk, S.T.K. and Wong, Y.H. (1995), ``The benefits of `guanxi’: the value of relationships in developing the Chinese market’’, Industrial Marketing Management, Vol. 24, pp. 207-14.
DePaulo, Bella M Gregory L. Brittingham and Mary Kister Kaiser, (1983) “Receiving COmpetence - Relevant Help: Effects on Reciprocity, Affect and Sensitivity to the Helpers Non-verbally Expressed Needs”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, pp. 1045-1060)
Dulebohn, J. H., Bommer, W. H., Liden, R. C., Brouer, R., & Ferris, G. R. (2011). A meta-analysis of the antecedents and consequences of leader–member exchange: Integrating the past with an eye toward the future. Journal of Management,. doi:10.1177/ 0149206311415280.
Erdogan, B., Kraimer, M., & Liden, R. C. (2002). Person–organisation fit and work attitudes: The moderating role of leader–member exchange. Academy of Management Proceedings. 65–114.
Fei, X. T: 1947/1992, From the Soil, the Foundations of Chinese Society: A Translation of Fei Xiaotong's Xiangtu Zhongguo with an Introduction and Epilogue by Cary G.Hamilton and Wang Zheng (University of California Press, Berkeley).
Fock, H.K.Y. and Woo, K.S. (1998), ``The China market: strategic implications of guanxi’’, Business Strategy Review, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 33-43.
Fylan, F. (2005). “Semi-Structured interviewing.” A handbook of Research Methods for Clinical and Health Psychology.
Gilligan, C , J. Ward and J. Taylor (eds.): 1988, Mapping the Moral Domain: A Contribution of Women's Thinking to Psychological Theory and Education (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA).
Gerstner, C., & Day, D. (1997). Meta-analytic review of leader– member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(6), 827–844.
Graen, G. (1976). Role-making processes within complex organisations. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organisational psychology (pp. 1201–1245). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
Graen, G., & Scandura, T. (1987). Toward a psychology of dyadic organising. In L. Cummings & B. Staw (Eds.), Research in organisational behaviour (Vol. 9, pp. 175–208). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Graen, G., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1991). The transformation of work group professionals into self-managing and partially self-designing contributors: Toward a theory of leadership-making. Journal of Management Systems, 3(3), 33–48.
Graen, G., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader–member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: applying a multi-level multi domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 219–247
Garonzik, R., Brockner, J., and Siegel, P.A. (2000), ‘Identifying International Assignees at Risk for Premature Departure: The Interactive Effect of Outcome Favorability and Procedural Fairness,’ Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 1, 13 – 20.
Guthrie, D : 1998, 'The Declining Significance of Guanxi in China's Economic Transition', The China Quarterly 154, 254-282.
Guthrie, D.: 2001, Dragon in a Three-Piece Suit: The Emergence of Capitalism in China (Princeton University Press, NJ).
Jacobs, J. and Bruce, K. (1982), ``The concept of guanxi and local politics in a rural Chinese Figure 1 A perceptual map of the three clusters using psychic distance and transaction cost [ 63 ]
Kapkin, A, Patrycja (2017), “ A Qualitative Study of Cross-Cultural Differences, Adjustment and Job Performance of Expatriates working in Taiwan”
T.K.P. Leung and Y.H. Wong The ethics and positioning of guanxi in China Marketing Intelligence & Planning 19/1 [2001] 55±64 cultural setting’’, in Greenblatt, S., Richard, W. and Wilson, A.A. (Eds), Social Interaction in Chinese Society, Praeger, New York, NY
Healy, M., and Perry, C. (2000). Comprehensive criteria to judge validity and reliability of qualitative research within the realism paradigm. Qualitative Market Research, 3(3), 118-126.
Hogg, M.A. and Terry, D.J. (2000) ‘Social Identity and Self-categorization Processes in Organizational Contexts’, Academy of Management Review 25(1): 121–40.
Hofstede, G. (1996) ‘An American in Paris: The Influence of Nationality on Organizational Theories’, Organizational Studies 17(3): 525–37.
Hofstede, G. and Bond, M.H. (1988), ``Confucius and economic growth: new trends into culture’s consequences’’, Organization Studies (24)
Hofstede, G. (2001) Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations across Nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Huang, T. J., Chi, S. C., & Lawler, J. J. (2005). The relationship between expatriates' personality traits and their adjustment to international assignments. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(9), 1656-1670.
Hutchings, K., & Murray, G. (2002). Australian expatriates' experiences in working behind the Bamboo curtain: an examination of Guanxi in post-communist China. Asian Business & Management, 1(3), 373-393.
Johnson, E.C., Kristof-Brown, A.L., Van Vainen, A.E.M., De Pater, I.E., and Klein, M.R. (2003), ‘Expatriate Social Ties: Personality Antecedents and Consequences for Adjustment,’ International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 11, 4, 277– 288.
King, Y.K. (1993), The Chinese Society and its Culture, Oxford University Press, HK (in Chinese).
Lau, D. C: 1979, The Analects (Penguin, England).
Ladkin, D. (2010). Rethinking leadership. A new look at old questions. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Law, K. S., Wong, C. S., Wang, D., & Wang, L. (2000). Effect of supervisor–subordinate guanxi on supervisory decisions in China: An empirical investigation. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(4), 751-765.
Leung, T.K.P. and Yeung, L.L. (1995), ``Negotiation in the People’s Republic of China: results of a survey of small businesses in Hong Kong’’, Journal of Small Business Management, Vol. 33 No. 1, pp. 70-77.
Leung, T. K. P., Y. H. Wong and Syson Wong: 1996, 'A Study of Hong Kong Businessmen's Perception of the Role of Guanxi in the People's Republic of China', JoMma/ of Business Ethics 15, 749-758.
Luo, Yadong: 1997, 'Guanxi and Performance of Foreign-Invested Enterprises in China', Management International Review 37(1), 51—70.
T.K.P. Leung, Y.H. Wong The Ethics and Positioning of Guanxi in China Article in Marketing Intelligence & Planning · February 2001 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247624761_The_Ethics_and_Positioning_of_Guanxi_in_China?enrichId=rgreq-d73ad47ca325f76a0f654edc236accaf-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI0NzYyNDc2MTtBUzoyNDU3Mjk3NTA5NDE2OTZAMTQzNTU5Nzk0NjgwNQ==&el=1_x_2
Leung, T.K.P. Department of Business Studies, Buttery, E. Alan, Received June 1996 Revised October 1996 March 1997, The difference between Chinese and Western negotiations, Hawkesbury Campus, University of Western Sydney, Australia, European Journal of Marketing 32,3/4
Luo, Y. (2000) Guanxi and Business, Singapore: World Scientific.
Li, J., & Wright, P. C. (2000). Guanxi and the realities of career development: a Chinese perspective. Career Development International, 5(7), 369-378.
Lee, K.H. and Lo, W.C. (1988), ``American business people’s perceptions of marketing and negotiating in the People’s Republic of China’’, International Marketing Review, Summer, pp. 41-51.
Li Jingjing(2014)Chinese expatriates’ adjustment process in Portugal: on the road to guanxi replication :Nova School of Business and Economics, Lisbon, Portugal:http://www.emeraldinsight.com/1536-5433.htm
Liden, R. C., & Maslyn, J. (1998). Multidimensionality of leader– member exchange: An empirical assessment through scale development. Journal of Management, 24, 43–72.
Liden, R. C., Sparrowe, R. T., & Wayne, S. J. (1997). Leader– member exchange theory: The past and potential for the future. In G. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management (Vol. 15, pp. 47–119)., JAI Press CT: Greenwich.
Lincoln, Y.S., and Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Marshall, M.N. (1996). “Sampling for qualitative research.” Family Practice. Oxford University Press 1996; Vol. 13, No. 6 (p 522-525)
Mason, J. (2002). Qualitative Researching. Second Edition
Mount, M.K. and Barrick, M.R. (1995) ‘The Big Five Personality Dimensions: Implications for Research and Practice in Human Resources Management’, Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 13: 153 – 200.
Moynihan, L.M. and Peterson, R.S. (2001) ‘A Contingent Configuration Approach to Understanding the Role of Member Personality in Organizational Groups’, Research in Organizational Behavior, 23: 327 – 78.
Nakane, C. (1970), Japanese Society, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA
Noble, H. and Smith, J. (2015). “Issues of validity and reliability in qualitative research.” BMJ Journals. Vol.18, 2. Retrieved on 24 June 2017 http://ebn.bmj.com/content/18/2/34
Pye, L. (1982), Chinese Commercial Negotiation Styles, Oelgeschlager, Gunn and Hain, Cambridge.
Pye, L. (1986), ``The China trade: making the deal’’, Harvard Business Review, July-August, pp. 74-80.
Redding, S.G. (1993), The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism, de Gruyter, New York, NY.
Redding, S. G., & Wong, G. Y. Y. (1986). The psychology of Chinese organizational behaviour. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The psychology of the Chinese people (pp. 267–295). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rubin, H.J, Rubin, I.S (2005). Qualitative Interviewing (2nd ed.): The Art of Hearing Data
Pearce II, John, A. and Richard B. Jr Robinson (2000) Cultivating Guanxi as a Foreign Investor Strategy”, Business Horizons, 43 (1) p 31- 44.
P. Steidlmeier. Gift Giving, Bribery and Corruption: Ethical Management of Business Relationships in China. Journal of Business Ethics 20: 121–132, 1999. © 1999 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
Ruey-Jer Bryan Jean, Danchi Tan, Rudolf R. Sinkovics (2011)Ethnic ties, location choice, and firm performance in foreign direct investment: A study of Taiwanese business groups FDI in China International Business Review journal homepage:International Business Review 20 (2011) 627–635 www.elsevier. com/locate/ibus rev
Schutte, Hellmut and Deanna Ciarlange, (1998) Consumer Behavior in Asia, London: Macmilland Press Ltd. P 37-38)
Simons, H.W., Berkowitz, B. and Moyer, R.J. (1970), ``Similarity, credibility, and attitude change: a review and a theory’’, Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 73, January, pp. 1-16.
Solomon, R.C. (1992), Ethics and Excellence, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Solomon, R., Surprenant, C., Czepiel, J., & Gutman, E. (1985). A role theory perspective on dyadic interactions: The service encounter. Journal of Marketing, 49(1), 99–111.
Sparrowe, R.T., Liden, R.C., Wayne, S.J., and Kraimer, M.L. (2001), ‘Social Networks and the Performance of Individuals and Groups,’ Academy of Management Journal, 44, 2, 316– 325.
Sparrowe, R., & Liden, R. C. (1997). Process and structure in leader– member exchange. Academy of Management Journal, 22(2), 522–552.
Su, C. and J. E. Littlefield: 2001, 'Entering Guanxi: A Business Ethical Dilemma in Mainland China?', Journal of Business Ethics 33(3), 199-210.
Suh, E., Diener, E., Oishi, S. and Triandis, H.C. (1998) ‘The Shifting Basis of Life Satisfaction Judgments Across Cultures: Emotions Versus Norms’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2): 482 –93.
Tao, J.: 1996, 'The Moral Foundation of Welfare in Chinese Society: Between Virtues and Rights', in G. K. Becker (ed.). Ethics in Business and Society: Chinese and Western Perspectives (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg).
The Chinese Culture Connection: 1988, 'Chinese Values and the Search for Culture-Free Dimensions of Culture', Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 18(2), 143-164.
Tsang, E.W.K. (1998), ``Can guanxi be a source of sustained competitive advantage for doing business in China?’’, Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 12 No. 2, May, pp. 64-73.
Taiwan Government Information Office (2002) Available at www.gio.gov.tw
Tajfel, H. (1981) Human Groups and Social Categories: Studies in Social Psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Tan, D., & Snell, R. S. (2002). The third eye: Exploring guanxi and relational morality in the workplace. Journal of Business Ethics, 41(4), 361-384.
Trochim, W.M.K,. (2006) “Ethics in Research”. Research Methods. Knowledge Base. Retrieved on 23 May 2017 from: https://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/ethics.php
Tsang, E. W. K. (1998). Can guanxi be a source of sustained competitive advantage for doing business in China? Academy of Management Executive, 12(2), 64–73
Uhl-Bien, M. (2006). Relational leadership theory: Exploring the social processes of leadership and organising. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 654–676.
Uhl-Bien, M., & Maslyn, J. M. (2003). Reciprocity in manager– subordinate relationship: Components, Configurations and outcomes. Journal of Management, 24, 511–532.
Varma, A., Pichler, S., Budhwar, P., & Biswas, S. (2009). Chinese Host Country Nationals' Willingness to Support Expatriates The Role of Collectivism, Interpersonal Affect and Guanxi. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 9(2), 199-216.
Wang, X., and Rabindra, N.K. (2004), ‘Nationality, Social Network and Psychological Well-being,’ International Journal of Human Resource Management, 15, 4 – 5, 775– 793. Wang, X. (2002), ‘Expatriate Adjustment from a Social Network Perspective: Theoretical Examination and a Conceptual Model,’ International Journal of Cross-cultural Management, 2, 3, 321– 337
Warner. M. (1993) 'Human Resource Management "with Chinese Characteristics" '. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 4(1): 45-65.
Wamer, M. (1996) 'Chinese Enterprise Reform. Human Resources and the 1994 Labour Law'. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 7(4): 779-96.
Wayne, S. J., & Green, S. A. (1993). The effects of leader–member exchange on employee citizenship and impression management behaviour. Human Relations, 46, 1431–1440.
Walumbwa, F. O., Cropanzano, R., & Goldman, B. M. (2011). How leader–member exchange influences effective work behaviors: Social exchange and internal–external efficacy perspectives. Personnel Psychology, 64(3), 739–770.
Wederspahn, Gary , (1997), “Exporting corporate Ethics”, Workforce 2 (1), p 29-30.
Wong, Y H. and R Y K. Chan: 1999, 'Relationship Marketing in China: Guanxi, Favouritism and Adaptation', Journal of Business Ethics 22(2), 107-118.
Wong, Y.H. (1997a), ``A buyer and seller relationship model for Chinese enterprises’’, unpublished PhD thesis, James Cook University of Northern Queensland.
Wong, Y.H. (1997b), ``Relationship marketing in China, guanxi, favouritism and quality of business development’’, Management Review, July/September, pp. 43-57.
Wong, Y.H. (1998a), ``An integrated relationship (guanxi) marketing model in China’’, Journal of Professional Services Marketing, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 25-48.
Wong, Y.H. (1998b), ``Key to key account management: relationship (guanxi) model’’, International Marketing Review, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 215-31.
Yam, E., Wong, Y.H. and Leung, T.K.P. (1992), ``A research of the training requirements for the Hong Kong import/export industry’’, Conference Proceedings, Marketing Educator Conference, Perth, February, pp. 213-22
Xin, K. R. and J. L. Pearce: 1996, 'Guanxi: Connections as Substitutes for Formal Institutional Support', Academy of Management Journal 39, 1641-1658.
Xinhuanet.com. (2018). Popularity of Chinese language learning soaring within U.S. education system: survey - Xinhua | English.news.cn. [online] Available at: http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-06/03/c_136336004.htm [Accessed 21 Feb. 2018].
Yang, M. (1989). The gift economy and state power in China. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 31, 25–54.
Yang, K. S. (1993). Chinese social orientation: An integrative analysis. In L. Y. Cheng, F. M. C. Cheung, & C. N. Cheng (Eds.), Psychotherapy for the Chinese (pp. 19–56). Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong.
Yang, M. (1994). Gifts, favors and banquets: The art of social relationships in China (1st ed., p. 370). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Yang, Y. (2001). People on one’s own side: A case study on the typology of Chinese Guanxi’. In C.-F. Yang (Ed.), Interpersonal relationship, affection and trust of the Chinese: From an interactional perspective (pp. 131–157).
Ya-Ping Chiua , Melien Wub , Wen-Long Zhuangc * and Ying-Yu Hsuc. Influences on expatriate social networks in China. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 20, No. 4, April 2009, 790–809
Yeung, 1. and R. L. Tung: 1996, 'Achieving Business Success in Confucian Societies: The Importance of Guanxi (Connections)', Organizational Dynamics 25(2), 54-66
Zhong, C. (2007). Application of proverbs in psychotherapy for the Chinese. World Cultural Research Review, 3(1), 16–19.