有鑑於大眾對長期宣導之健康警示的熟悉與忽視，現今的威脅廣告試圖以不同訴求對象、圖像呈現方式發展多樣的溝通策略。本研究主張：以視覺隱喻的呈現方式，取代血腥、驚人之直白圖像，可改善威脅訴求的傳播困境，得以提升彼等廣告在態度與行為改變意圖上的說服效果。
本研究以視覺隱喻手法傳遞健康威脅訊息，探討視覺隱喻對廣告效果之影響，共進行兩項實驗。實驗一以較保守之他人焦點情境進行檢測，首先確立視覺隱喻在威脅廣告上的主效果，結果發現採用視覺隱喻圖像（vs. 無視覺隱喻）確實會提高接收者的議題態度、廣告態度與行為改變意圖；實驗二則加入情緒反應的衡量，以檢測視覺隱喻效果的中介機制，並考量威脅訴求焦點與接收者角色狀態的干擾作用。實驗結果發現：威脅訴求中運用視覺隱喻 (vs. 無視覺隱喻) 能夠激發受測者的同理心，進而提升健康議題與廣告之態度，並促發行為執行者不當行為的戒除意圖，以及非行為者親社會的規勸意願；在自我 (vs. 他人) 威脅焦點情境以及針對行為執行者 (vs. 非執行者) 傳播時，會進一步強化視覺隱喻的說服效果。特別是自我威脅焦點情境，視覺隱喻的廣告效果除了會透過同理心中介外，亦會透過恐懼喚起所中介。
本文聚焦於視覺隱喻與概念隱喻的效果，為過去研究指出威脅訴求本質上的缺失發展新的解決方案，且對於其中的作用機制有所瞭解。另一方面，在不同威脅型式與針對不同受眾的傳播上，釐清視覺隱喻較適合的使用情境。在實務方面，建議相關政府單位與組織或是健康產品業者，應多採用具新穎性且能夠提高接收者資訊推敲的視覺隱喻之圖像來傳遞威脅訊息，以提升後續態度與行為改變意圖，且搭配自我威脅焦點或針對行為者傳播尤其有效。

Due to the public’s familiarity and negligence of long-term publicity of health warnings, nowadays, relevant organizations attempt to develop diverse communication strategies with different threatened targets and a variety of image presentations. The current study proposed that the use of visual metaphor in threat persuasion would lead to better attitudes and higher intentions to change behavior.
Two experiments were conducted in this study. The first experiment tested the main effects of visual metaphor in other-focused threat messages. The results showed that using visual metaphor image (vs. no visual metaphor) would improve the recipients' attitudes toward the issue, attitudes toward the ad and behavioral change intention. The second experiment added the measure of emotional responses to examine the mediating mechanisms of visual metaphor and considered the moderating effects of threat-focus and receiver role status. The results of the experiment indicated the direct effect of visual metaphor persuasion on the threat appeal advertising, and the effect is mediated by empathy. Moreover, there were significant interaction effects between visual metaphor and threat-focus and between visual metaphor and receiver role status. In the context of self-focused threat (vs. other-focused) or for behavioral actors (vs. non-actors), the persuasive effects of visual metaphor would be strengthened.
The current study focuses on visual metaphor and conceptual metaphor and develops a new solution to alleviate the dilemma of threat appeal advertising. Research results clarify the mechanisms of the effect of visual metaphor threat persuasion. The findings can also recommend the appropriate use of visual metaphor to the practitioners.

論文審定書………………………………………………………………………………i
誌謝…………………………………………………………………………………...... ii
摘要……………………………………………………………………………………. iii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….. …. iv
目錄……………………………………………………………………………………...v
圖次…………………………………………………………………………………….vii
表次……………………………………………………………………………………viii
第一章 緒論………………………………………………………………………...…..1
第一節 研究背景………………………………………………………………….....1
第二節 研究動機…………………………………………………………………….2
第三節 研究問題…………………………………………………………………….7
第四節 研究目的…………………………………………………………………….7
第二章 文獻探討……………………………………………………………………….9
第一節 威脅說服廣告……………………………………………………………….9
一、 威脅訴求之理論發展……………………………………………………...9
二、 威脅訴求之相關研究…………………………………………………….11
三、 小結…………………………………………………………………….…20
第二節 視覺隱喻………………………………………………………………...…24
一、 視覺隱喻的定義與效果…………………………………………………24
二、 健康傳播中的隱喻………………………………………………………27
三、 小結………………………………………………………………………29
第三節 文獻回顧總結…………………………………………………………...…30
第三章 研究架構與假說推論……………………………………………………...…32
第一節 研究架構…………………………………………………………………...32
第二節 研究假說………………………………………………………………...…33
第四章 實驗一……………………………………………………………………...…42
第一節 研究方法………………………………………………………………...…43
一、 樣本與實驗設計…………………………………………………………43
二、 實驗刺激和前測…………………………………………………………43
三、 實驗程序…………………………………………………………………57
四、 變數衡量…………………………………………………………………58
第二節 分析結果………………………………………………………………...…60
一、 研究樣本組成……………………………………………………………60
二、 變數之平均數、標準差及量表信度分析………………………………61
三、 操弄性檢驗……………………………………………………………….62
四、 假說驗證………………………………………………………………….62
五、 討論……………………………………………………………………….63
第五章 實驗二………………………………………………………………………...65
第一節 研究方法…………………………………………………………………...65
一、 樣本與實驗設計…………………………………………………………65
二、 實驗刺激…………………………………………………………………66
三、 實驗程序…………………………………………………………………66
四、 變數衡量………………………………………………………………….67
第二節 分析結果…………………………………………………………………...72
一、 研究樣本組成……………………………………………………………72
二、 變數之平均數、標準差及量表信度分析………………………………...74
三、 操弄性檢驗與控制變數檢定…………………………………………….75
四、 假說驗證………………………………………………………………….78
五、 討論……………………………………………………………………….93
第六章 結論與建議…………………………………………………………………...97
第一節 研究發現…………………………………………………………………...97
第二節 研究意涵…………………………………………………………………...99
一、 理論意涵…………………………………………………………………99
二、 實務意涵………………………………………………………………..103
第三節 研究限制與未來研究方向………….……………………………………106
參考文獻………………………………………………………………………………111
附錄.. …………………………………………………………………………………129
附錄一：前測一問卷…………………………………………………………………129
附錄二：前測二問卷…………………………………………………………………136
附錄三：實驗一問卷(吸菸者問卷內容)……………………….……………………140
附錄四：實驗一問卷(非吸菸者問卷內容)……………………….…………………147
附錄五：實驗二問卷(吸菸者問卷內容)..……………………………………………155
附錄六：實驗二問卷(非吸菸者問卷內容)..…………………………………………164

自由時報 (2016年9月9日) 。泰國「求饒」反酒駕廣告 網友：史上最有感。自由時報。取自http://news.ltn.com.tw/news/life/breakingnews/1821443
沈錦惠 (2014)。隱喻即視覺化的語藝行動：網路時代談視覺語藝的古典根源。中華傳播學刊，(26)， 63-106。
侯心雅 (2011)。影響大學生預防及資訊尋求行為意圖的因素：以毒奶粉事件為例。健康促進與衛生教育學報，(36)，35-52。
健康教育及菸害防制組 (2015年1月26日) 。菸品警示圖文，就是要TOUCH (達陣)! “有感”才會 “有效”，不是嚇嚇旁人就好~。衛生福利部國民健康署。取自https://www.hpa.gov.tw/Pages/Detail.aspx?nodeid=1134&pid=2696#
健康教育及菸害防制組 (2019年5月8日) 。菸害防制。衛生福利部國民健康署。取自https://www.hpa.gov.tw/Pages/List.aspx?nodeid=41
張萩琴、陳淑芬、林惠卿 (2013)。更年期婦女從事規律運動行為之研究–計畫行為理論之應用。健康生活與成功老化學刊，5(1) ，1-15。
黃楓惇 (2015年5月12日) 。「酒駕防治廣告」為什麼總是無效？[你不了解的消費者決策行為]。商業洞察。取自http://www.motive.com.tw/?p=9375
黃鈴媚 (1999)。恐懼訴求與健康宣導活動：宣傳訊息內容設計之研究。新聞學研究，61，99-135。
楊朝明 (2012)。隱喻概念運用於平面廣告之理論及其映射之過程。人文暨社會科學期刊，8(2)，19-33。
楊朝明、林品章 (2007)。隱喻修辭的視覺圖像與標題對廣告效果的影響。設計學報，12(1)，19-35。
葉朱實、胡益進 (2016)。台北市某醫學中心吸菸糖尿病人戒菸意圖相關因素之研究。健康促進暨衛生教育雜誌，(40)，103-127。
劉宜芬 (2012)。廣告對產品線外溢效果之影響：廣告策略、品牌聯想與屬性呈現之角色。管理學報，29(6)，539-557。
蔡譯心、王鴻祥 (2015)。網路行銷之視覺隱喻圖像對廣告效果的影響。中華民國設計學會研究論文，1(17)，441-446。
衛生福利部國民健康署 (2018年11月12日)。吸菸行為調查。衛生福利部國民健康署。取自https://www.hpa.gov.tw/Pages/List.aspx?nodeid=112
Agrawal, N., & Duhachek, A. (2010). Emotional compatibility and the effectiveness of antidrinking messages: A defensive processing perspective on shame and guilt. Journal of Marketing Research, 47(2), 263-273.
Agrawal, N., Menon, G., & Aaker, J. L. (2007). Getting emotional about health. Journal of Marketing Research, 44(1), 100-113.
Andrews, J. C., Netemeyer, R. G., Kees, J., & Burton, S. (2014). How graphic visual health warnings affect young smokers' thoughts of quitting. Journal of Marketing Research, 51(2), 165-183.
Ang, S. H. (2002). Effects of metaphoric advertising among mainland Chinese consumers. Journal of Marketing Communications, 8(3), 179-188.
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Optimistic bias in adolescent and adult smokers and nonsmokers. Addictive Behaviors, 25(4), 625-632.
Arroliga, A. C., Newman, S., Longworth, D. L., & Stoller, J. K. (2002). Metaphorical medicine: Using metaphors to enhance communication with patients who have pulmonary disease. Annals of Internal Medicine, 137(5), 376-379.
Baek, T. H., & Yoon, S. (2017). Guilt and shame: Environmental message framing effects. Journal of Advertising, 46(3), 440-453.
Basil, D. Z., Ridgway, N. M., & Basil, M. D. (2008). Guilt and giving: A process model of empathy and efficacy. Psychology & Marketing, 25(1), 1-23.
Beard, F. K. (2008). Humor in the advertising business: Theory, practice, and wit. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.
Ben-Ari, O. T., Florian, V., & Mikulincer, M. (2000). Does a threat appeal moderate reckless driving? A terror management theory perspective. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 32(1), 1-10.
Bowdle, B. F., & Gentner, D. (2005). The career of metaphor. Psychological Review, 112-216(1), 193.
Bowker, J. (1996). Cancer, individual process, and control: A case study in metaphor analysis. Health Communication, 8(1), 91-104.
Brennan, L., & Binney, W. (2010). Fear, guilt, and shame appeals in social marketing. Journal of Business Research, 63(2), 140-146.
Brouwers, M. C., & Sorrentino, R. M. (1993). Uncertainty orientation and protection motivation theory: The role of individual differences in health compliance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(1), 102-112.
Burke, K. (1966). Language as symbolic action: Essays on life, literature, and method. London: Univ of California Press.
Cameron, L., & Seu, I. B. (2012). Landscapes of empathy: Spatial scenarios, metaphors and metonymies in responses to distant suffering. Text & Talk, 32(3), 281-305.
Carey, R. N., McDermott, D. T., & Sarma, K. M. (2013). The impact of threat appeals on fear arousal and driver behavior: A meta-analysis of experimental research 1990–2011. PloS One, 8(5), e62821. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062821
Casarett, D., Pickard, A., Fishman, J. M., Alexander, S. C., Arnold, R. M., Pollak, K. I., & Tulsky, J. A. (2010). Can metaphors and analogies improve communication with seriously ill patients? Journal of Palliative Medicine, 13(3), 255-260.
Ceccarelli, L. (2004). Neither confusing cacophony nor culinary complements: A case study of mixed metaphors for genomic science. Written Communication, 21(1), 92-105.
Chang, C. (2017). A Metacognitive Model of the Effects of Susceptibility to Persuasion Self-Beliefs on Advertising Effects. Journal of Advertising, 46(4), 487-502. doi:10.1080/00913367.2017.1392911
Chang, C. T., & Yen, C. T. (2013). Missing ingredients in metaphor advertising: The right formula of metaphor type, product type, and need for cognition. Journal of Advertising, 42(1), 80-94.
Condit, C. M. (2009). Dynamic feelings about metaphors for genes: Implications for research and genetic policy. Genomics, Society and Policy, 5(3), 44-58.
Crockett, M. J., Kurth-Nelson, Z., Siegel, J. Z., Dayan, P., & Dolan, R. J. (2014). Harm to others outweighs harm to self in moral decision making. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(48), 17320-17325.
Dabbs Jr, J. M., & Leventhal, H. (1966). Effects of varying the recommendations in a fear-arousing communication. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4(5), 525-531.
Dahlén, M., Rosengren, S., Törn, F., & Öhman, N. (2008). Could placing ads wrong be right?: advertising effects of thematic incongruence. Journal of Advertising, 37(3), 57-67.
Davis, M. H. (1983). The effects of dispositional empathy on emotional reactions and helping: A multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality, 51(2), 167-184.
De Hoog, N., Stroebe, W., & de Wit, J. B. (2007). The impact of vulnerability to and severity of a health risk on processing and acceptance of fear-arousing communications. Review of General Psychology, 11(3), 258-285.
De Meulenaer, S., De Pelsmacker, P., & Dens, N. (2015). Have no fear: How individuals differing in uncertainty avoidance, anxiety, and chance belief process health risk messages. Journal of Advertising, 44(2), 114-125.
De Pelsmacker, P., Cauberghe, V., & Dens, N. (2011). Fear appeal effectiveness for familiar and unfamiliar issues. Journal of Social Marketing, 1(3), 171-191.
Dillard, J. P. (1994). Rethinkin the study of fear appeals: An emotional perspective. Communication Theory, 4(4), 295-323.
Dillard, J. P., Plotnick, C. A., Godbold, L. C., Freimuth, V. S., & Edgar, T. (1996). The multiple affective outcomes of AIDS PSAs: Fear appeals do more than scare people. Communication Research, 23(1), 44-72.
Duhachek, A., Agrawal, N., & Han, D. (2012). Guilt versus shame: Coping, fluency, and framing in the effectiveness of responsible drinking messages. Journal of Marketing Research, 49(6), 928-941.
Earl, A., & Albarracín, D. (2007). Nature, decay, and spiraling of the effects of fear-inducing arguments and HIV counseling and testing: A meta-analysis of the short-and long-term outcomes of HIV-prevention interventions. Health Psychol, 26(4), 496-506.
Egbert, N., Miraldi, L. B., & Murniadi, K. (2014). Friends don't let friends suffer from depression: How threat, efficacy, knowledge, and empathy relate to college students'; intentions to intervene on behalf of a depressed friend. Journal of Health Communication, 19(4), 460-477.
Eisend, M. (2017). The third-person effect in advertising: A meta-analysis. Journal of Advertising, 46(3), 377-394.
Faseur, T., Cauberghe, V., & Hudders, L. (2015). Social threat appeals in commercial advertising: The moderating impact of perceived level of self-efficacy and self-esteem on advertising effectiveness. Communications: the European Journal of Communication Research, 40(2), 171-183.
Floyd, D. L., Prentice‐Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (2000). A meta‐analysis of research on protection motivation theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(2), 407-429.
Fossataro, C., Sambo, C. F., Garbarini, F., & Iannetti, G. D. (2016). Interpersonal interactions and empathy modulate perception of threat and defensive responses. Scientific Reports, 6, 19353. doi:10.1038/srep19353
Gendall, P., Hoek, J., & Gendall, K. (2018). Evaluating the emotional impact of warning images on young adult smokers and susceptible non-smokers. Journal of Health Communication, 23(3), 291-298.
Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Benthin, A. C., & Hessling, R. M. (1996). A longitudinal study of the reciprocal nature of risk behaviors and cognitions in adolescents: what you do shapes what you think, and vice versa. Health Psychology, 15(5), 344-354.
Gibbs, R. W. (1994). The poetics of mind: Figurative thought, language, and understanding. Santa Cruz: Cambridge University Press.
Gibbs, R. W. (2008). The Cambridge handbook of metaphor and thought: Cambridge University Press.
Gkiouzepas, L., & Hogg, M. K. (2011). Articulating a new framework for visual metaphors in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 40(1), 103-120.
Goldenberg, J. L., & Arndt, J. (2008). The implications of death for health: A terror management health model for behavioral health promotion. Psychological Review, 115(4), 1032-1053.
Griese, K.-M., Alexandrov, A., Michaelis, C., & Lilly, B. (2018). Examining the effect of humor in environmentally-friendly advertising. Marketing Management Journal, 28(1), 30-47.
Han, D., Duhachek, A., & Agrawal, N. (2014). Emotions shape decisions through construal level: The case of guilt and shame. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(4), 1047-1064.
Hansen, J., Winzeler, S., & Topolinski, S. (2010). When the death makes you smoke: a terror management perspective on the effectiveness of cigarette on-pack warnings. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 226-228.
Hansen, W. B., & Malotte, C. K. (1986). Perceived personal immunity: The development of beliefs about susceptibility to the consequences of smoking. Preventive Medicine, 15(4), 363-372.
Harris, P. R., & Epton, T. (2009). The impact of self‐affirmation on health cognition, health behaviour and other health‐related responses: A narrative review. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3(6), 962-978.
Harris, P. R., Mayle, K., Mabbott, L., & Napper, L. (2007). Self-affirmation reduces smokers' defensiveness to graphic on-pack cigarette warning labels. Health Psychology, 26(4), 437-446.
Hauser, G. A. (2002). Introduction to rhetorical theory. Long Grove: Waveland Press.
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Psychology Press.
Hennessy, M., Bleakley, A., Mallya, G., & Romer, D. (2013). Beliefs associated with intention to ban smoking in households with smokers. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 16(1), 69-77.
Ho, S., & Chua, H. F. (2013). Neurobiological bases of self-reference and deliberate processing in tailored health communication. In P. A. Hall (Eds.), Social Neuroscience and Public Health (pp. 73-82). New York: Springer.
Hoefler, A., Athenstaedt, U., Corcoran, K., Ebner, F., & Ischebeck, A. (2015). Coping with self-threat and the evaluation of self-related traits: An fMRI study. PloS One, 10(9), e0136027. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0136027
Hong, J., & Chang, H. H. (2015). “I” follow my heart and “We” rely on reasons: The impact of self-construal on reliance on feelings versus reasons in decision making. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(6), 1392-1411.
Huang, Y. (2018). Validating a modified typology of visual metaphor: Evidence form artful deviation, imagistic elaboration and ad attitude. Journal of Marketing Communications, 1-19.
Iles, I. A., & Nan, X. (2017). It’s no laughing matter: An exploratory study of the use of ironic versus sarcastic humor in health-related advertising messages. Health Marketing Quarterly, 34(3), 187-201.
Izard, C. E. (2013). Human emotions. New York: Springer Science & Business Media.
Janssens, W., De Pelsmacker, P., & Geuens, M. (2012). Online advertising and congruency effects: It depends on how you look at it. International Journal of Advertising, 31(3), 579-604.
Jeong, S. H. (2008). Visual metaphor in advertising: Is the persuasive effect attributable to visual argumentation or metaphorical rhetoric? Journal of Marketing Communications, 14(1), 59-73. doi:10.1080/14697010701717488
Kaplan, S. J. (1992). A conceptual analysis of form and content in visual metaphors. Communication, 13(3), 197-209.
Klein, W. M., & Harris, P. R. (2009). Self-affirmation enhances attentional bias toward threatening components of a persuasive message. Psychological Science, 20(12), 1463-1467.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: The University of Chicago.
Landau, M. J., Arndt, J., & Cameron, L. D. (2018). Do metaphors in health messages work? Exploring emotional and cognitive factors. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 74, 135-149.
Landau, M. J., Cameron, L. D., Arndt, J., Hamilton, W. K., Swanson, T. J., & Bultmann, M. (2019). Beneath the surface: Abstract construal mindset increases receptivity to metaphors in health communications. Social Cognition, 37(3), 314-340.
Laroche, M., Toffoli, R., Zhang, Q., & Pons, F. (2001). A cross-cultural study of the persuasive effect of fear appeal messages in cigarette advertising: China and Canada. International Journal of Advertising, 20(3), 297-317.
LaTour, M. S., & Rotfeld, H. J. (1997). There are threats and (maybe) fear-caused arousal: Theory and confusions of appeals to fear and fear arousal itself. Journal of Advertising, 26(3), 45-59.
Lazard, A. J., Bamgbade, B. A., Sontag, J. M., & Brown, C. (2016). Using visual metaphors in health messages: a strategy to increase effectiveness for mental illness communication. Journal of Health Communication, 21(12), 1260-1268.
Lee, A. Y., & Aaker, J. L. (2004). Bringing the frame into focus: The influence of regulatory fit on processing fluency and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(2), 205-218. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.205
Lee, J. Y., Slater, M. D., & Tchernev, J. (2015). Self-deprecating humor versus other-deprecating humor in health messages. Journal of Health Communication, 20(10), 1185-1195.
Leshner, G., Bolls, P., & Wise, K. (2011). Motivated processing of fear appeal and disgust images in televised anti-tobacco ads. Journal of Media Psychology, 23, 77-89.
Leventhal, H. (1970). Findings and theory in the study of fear communications. In L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 119-186). San Diego: Academic Press.
Lewis, I. M., Watson, B. C., & White, K. M. (2009). What do we really know about designing and evaluating road safety advertising?: current knowledge and future challenges. Proceedings of 2009 Australasian Road Safety Research Policing and Education Conference: Smarter, Safer Directions, 733-746.
Lien, N.-H., & Chen, Y.-L. (2013). Narrative ads: The effect of argument strength and story format. Journal of Business Research, 66(4), 516-522.
Markman, A. B., & Gentner, D. (2000). Structure mapping in the comparison process. The American Journal of Psychology, 113(4), 501-538.
McCool, J., Webb, L., Cameron, L. D., & Hoek, J. (2012). Graphic warning labels on plain cigarette packs: Will they make a difference to adolescents? Social Science & Medicine, 74(8), 1269-1273.
McCoy, S. B., Gibbons, F. X., Reis, T. J., Gerrard, M., Luus, C. E., & Sufka, A. V. W. (1992). Perceptions of smoking risk as a function of smoking status. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(5), 469-488.
McMahan, S., Witte, K., & Meyer, J. a. (1998). The perception of risk messages regarding electromagnetic fields: extending the extended parallel process model to an unknown risk. Health Communication, 10(3), 247-259.
McQuarrie, E. F., & Mick, D. G. (1996). Figures of rhetoric in advertising language. Journal of Consumer Research, 22(4), 424-438.
McQuarrie, E. F., & Phillips, B. J. (2005). Indirect persuasion in advertising: How consumers process metaphors presented in pictures and words. Journal of Advertising, 34(2), 7-20.
McQueen, A., Waters, E. A., Kaphingst, K. A., Caburnay, C. A., Sanders Thompson, V. L., Boyum, S., & Kreuter, M. W. (2016). Examining interpretations of graphic cigarette warning labels among US youth and adults. Journal of Health Communication, 21(8), 855-867.
Meeds, R. (2011). Do metaphors matter?: The effects of fear-inducing visual metaphors and risk familiarity on attitudes and intentions toward smoking. Health Communication, 5, 41-73.
Mehrabian, A., & Epstein, N. (1972). A measure of emotional empathy 1. Journal of Personality, 40(4), 525-543.
Meyerowitz, B., & Chaiken, S. (1987). The effect of message framing on breast self-examination attitudes, intentions, and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 500-510.
Milne, S., Sheeran, P., & Orbell, S. (2000). Prediction and intervention in health‐related behavior: A meta‐analytic review of protection motivation theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(1), 106-143.
Mohanty, P., & Ratneshwar, S. (2015). Did you get it? Factors influencing subjective comprehension of visual metaphors in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 44(3), 232-242.
Mohanty, P., & Ratneshwar, S. (2016). Visual metaphors in ads: The inverted-U effects of incongruity on processing pleasure and ad effectiveness. Journal of Promotion Management, 22(3), 443-460.
Morales, A. C., Wu, E. C., & Fitzsimons, G. J. (2012). How disgust enhances the effectiveness of fear appeals. Journal of Marketing Research, 49(3), 383-393.
Moyer-Guse, E., Mahood, C., & Brookes, S. (2011). Entertainment-education in the context of humor: effects on safer sex intentions and risk perceptions. Health Communication, 26(8), 765-774.
Mukherjee, A., & Dubé, L. (2012). Mixing emotions: The use of humor in fear advertising. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 11(2), 147-161.
Nabi, R. L. (2002). The theoretical versus the lay meaning of disgust: Implications for emotion research. Cognition and Emotion, 16(5), 695-703.
Nabi, R. L. (2016). Laughing in the face of fear (of disease detection): Using humor to promote cancer self-examination behavior. Health Communication, 31(7), 873-883.
Nabi, R. L., Moyer-Gusé, E., & Byrne, S. (2007). All joking aside: A serious investigation into the persuasive effect of funny social issue messages. Communication Monographs, 74(1), 29-54.
Nan, X., Zhao, X., Yang, B., & Iles, I. (2015). Effectiveness of cigarette warning labels: examining the impact of graphics, message framing, and temporal framing. Health Communication, 30(1), 81-89.
Netemeyer, R. G., Burton, S., Andrews, J. C., & Kees, J. (2016). Graphic health warnings on cigarette packages: the role of emotions in affecting adolescent smoking consideration and secondhand smoke beliefs. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 35(1), 124-143.
Nordhielm, C. L. (2003). A levels-of-processing model of advertising repetition effects. In L. M. Scott & R. Batra (Eds.), Persuasive Imagery: A Consumer Response Perspective (pp.95-104). NJ and London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Oppenheimer, D. M., Meyvis, T., & Davidenko, N. (2009). Instructional manipulation checks: Detecting satisficing to increase statistical power. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 867-872.
Palmer-Wackerly, A. L., & Krieger, J. L. (2015). Dancing around infertility: The use of metaphors in a complex medical situation. Health Communication, 30(6), 612-623.
Park, J. S., & Ju, I. (2016). Prescription drug advertising, disease knowledge, and older adults’ optimistic bias about the future risk of alzheimer’s disease. Health Communication, 31(3), 346-354.
Parrott, R., & Smith, R. A. (2014). Defining genes using "blueprint" versus "instruction" metaphors: effects for genetic determinism, response efficacy, and perceived control. Health Communication, 29(2), 137-146.
Passyn, K., & Sujan, M. (2006). Self-accountability emotions and fear appeals: Motivating behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 32(4), 583-589.
Patel, R. A., Hartzler, A., Pratt, W., Back, A., Czerwinski, M., & Roseway, A. (2013). Visual feedback on nonverbal communication: a design exploration with healthcare professionals. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Pervasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare, 105-122. doi:10.4108/icst.pervasivehealth.2013.252024
Pavlovich, K., & Krahnke, K. (2012). Empathy, connectedness and organisation. Journal of Business Ethics, 105(1), 131-137.
Pechmann, C. (2001). A comparison of health communication models: Risk learning versus stereotype priming. Media Psychology, 3(2), 189-210.
Pechmann, C., & Reibling, E. T. (2006). Antismoking advertisements for youths: an independent evaluation of health, counter-industry, and industry approaches. American Journal of Public Health, 96(5), 906-913.
Peters, E., Romer, D., Slovic, P., Jamieson, K. H., Wharfield, L., Mertz, C., & Carpenter, S. M. (2007). The impact and acceptability of Canadian-style cigarette warning labels among US smokers and nonsmokers. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 9(4), 473-481.
Petrie, H. (1979). Metaphor and learning. In A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and thought (pp. 438–461). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion : central and peripheral routes to attitude change. New York, NY : Springer-Verlag.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2012). Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change. New York: Springer Science & Business Media.
Phillips, B. J. (2000). The impact of verbal anchoring on consumer response to image ads. Journal of Advertising, 29(1), 15-24.
Phillips, B. J., & McQuarrie, E. F. (2004). Beyond visual metaphor: A new typology of visual rhetoric in advertising. Marketing Theory, 4(1-2), 113-136.
Pierce, J. P., Choi, W. S., Gilpin, E. A., Farkas, A. J., & Merritt, R. K. (1996). Validation of susceptibility as a predictor of which adolescents take up smoking in the United States. Health Psychology, 15(5), 355-361.
Raghunathan, R., & Trope, Y. (2002). Walking the tightrope between feeling good and being accurate: Mood as a resource in processing persuasive messages. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(3), 510-525.
Ratneshwar, S., & Chaiken, S. (1991). Comprehension's role in persuasion: The case of its moderating effect on the persuasive impact of source cues. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(1), 52-62.
Reisfield, G. M., & Wilson, G. R. (2004). Use of metaphor in the discourse on cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 22(19), 4024-4027.
Robberson, M. R., & Rogers, R. W. (1988). Beyond fear appeals: Negative and positive persuasive appeals to health and self‐esteem. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18(3), 277-287.
Rogers, R. W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change1. The Journal of Psychology, 91(1), 93-114.
Rogers, R. W. (1983). Cognitive and psychological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation. Social Psychophysiology: A Sourcebook, 153-176.
Rothman, A. J., & Updegraff, J. A. (2010). Specifying when and how gain-and loss-framed messages motivate healthy behavior: An integrated approach. Perspectives on Framing, 257-278.
Rozin, P., & Royzman, E. B. (2001). Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(4), 296-320.
Ruiter, R. A., Abraham, C., & Kok, G. (2001). Scary warnings and rational precautions: A review of the psychology of fear appeals. Psychology and Health, 16(6), 613-630.
Ruiter, R. A., Kessels, L. T., Peters, G. J. Y., & Kok, G. (2014). Sixty years of fear appeal research: Current state of the evidence. International Journal of Psychology, 49(2), 63-70.
Samu, S., & Wymer, W. (2009). The effect of fit and dominance in cause marketing communications. Journal of Business Research, 62(4), 432-440.
Scherer, A. M., Scherer, L. D., & Fagerlin, A. (2015). Getting ahead of illness: using metaphors to influence medical decision making. Medical Decision Making, 35(1), 37-45.
Schimmack, U. (2005). Attentional interference effects of emotional pictures: Threat, negativity, or arousal? Emotion, 5(1), 55-66.
Scott, L. M. (1994). Images in advertising: The need for a theory of visual rhetoric. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(2), 252-273.
Shanahan, K. J., Hopkins, C. D., Carlson, L., & Raymond, M. A. (2012). Depictions of self-inflicted versus blameless victims for nonprofits employing print advertisements. Journal of Advertising, 41(3), 55-74.
Sheeran, P., Harris, P. R., & Epton, T. (2014). Does heightening risk appraisals change people’s intentions and behavior? A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Psychological Bulletin, 140(2), 511-543.
Sheikh, S., & Janoff-Bulman, R. (2010). The “shoulds” and “should nots” of moral emotions: A self-regulatory perspective on shame and guilt. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(2), 213-224.
Shen, L., & Mercer Kollar, L. M. (2015). Testing moderators of message framing effect: A motivational approach. Communication Research, 42(5), 626-648.
Smith, K. H., & Stutts, M. A. (2003). Effects of short‐term cosmetic versus long‐term health fear appeals in anti‐smoking advertisements on the smoking behaviour of adolescents. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 3(2), 157-177.
Sparks, P., Guthrie, C. A., & Shepherd, R. (1997). The dimensional structure of the perceived behavioral control construct 1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27(5), 418-438.
Speed, R., & Thompson, P. (2000). Determinants of sports sponsorship response. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(2), 226-238.
Spina, M., Arndt, J., Landau, M. J., & Cameron, L. D. (2018). Enhancing health message framing with metaphor and cultural values: Impact on latinas’ cervical cancer screening. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 52(2), 106-115.
Stegmann, U. E. (2005). Genetic information as instructional content. Philosophy of Science, 72(3), 425-443.
Susan-Resiga, I. (2015). Maybe it should be a laughing matter: A further exploration of the persuasive power of humorous threat appeals. (Masters thesis , Concordia University, Canada). Retrieved from https://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/980218/
Terblanche-Smit, M., & Terblanche, N. S. (2010). Race and attitude formation in HIV/Aids fear advertising. Journal of Business Research, 63(2), 121-125.
Tunner Jr, J. F., Day, E., & Crask, M. R. (1989). Protection motivation theory: An extension of fear appeals theory in communication. Journal of Business Research, 19(4), 267-276.
Van ‘t Riet, J., & Ruiter, R. A. (2013). Defensive reactions to health-promoting information: An overview and implications for future research. Health Psychology Review, 7(sup1), S104-S136.
Van Mulken, M., van Hooft, A., & Nederstigt, U. (2014). Finding the tipping point: Visual metaphor and conceptual complexity in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 43(4), 333-343.
Vargas, P. T., Duff, B. R., & Faber, R. J. (2017). A practical guide to experimental advertising research. Journal of Advertising, 46(1), 101-114.
Wehbe, M. S., Basil, M., & Basil, D. (2017). Reactance and coping responses to tobacco counter-advertisements. Journal of Health Communication, 22(7), 576-583.
Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communications Monographs, 59(4), 329-349.
Witte, K. (1994). Fear control and danger control: A test of the extended parallel process model (EPPM). Communications Monographs, 61(2), 113-134.
Witte, K., & Allen, M. (2000). A meta-analysis of fear appeals: Implications for effective public health campaigns. Health Education & Behavior, 27(5), 591-615.
Yoon, H. J. (2015a). Emotional and cognitive responses to nonhumorous and humorous threat persuasion public service advertisements. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 36(1), 52-69.
Yoon, H. J. (2015b). Humor effects in shame-inducing health issue advertising: The moderating effects of fear of negative evaluation. Journal of Advertising, 44(2), 126-139.
Yoon, H. J. (2017). Using humour to increase effectiveness of shameful health issue advertising: testing the effects of health worry level. International Journal of Advertising, 1-23.
Yoon, H. J., & Mayer, J. M. (2014). Do humour and threat work well together?: The moderating effect of need for cognition in humorous threat persuasion advertisements. International Journal of Advertising, 33(4), 725-740.
Yoon, H. J., & Tinkham, S. F. (2013). Humorous threat persuasion in advertising: The effects of humor, threat intensity, and issue involvement. Journal of Advertising, 42(1), 30-41.
Zablocki, R. W., Edland, S. D., Myers, M. G., Strong, D. R., Hofstetter, C. R., & Al-Delaimy, W. K. (2014). Smoking ban policies and their influence on smoking behaviors among current California smokers: a population-based study. Preventive Medicine, 59, 73-78.